In 2009, Ellen McGee has already addressed the lack of debate, which in her view does

not do justice to the importance of human bioelectronic implants [53]. Particularly in the

case of the development of brain implants as computer interfaces, she proposed reg­

ulatory intervention and the drafting and conclusion of an international treaty to contain

the societal dangers of the technology. While such a treaty has not materialized to date,

the approach to regulating research and development, the need to incorporate ethical

principles of sustainability into it, is now supported by many researchers. For example, in

2021, the IEEE formulated a new ethical standard for the development of intelligent and

autonomous systems. The IEEE 7000 is expected to become the new baseline standard

describing the learning processes companies must go through to build values-driven

ethical, reliable, risk-aware, and responsible technology. The approach seems to have

room for expansion, but it is a start that companies and institutions can use as a guide in

the future. As stated by McGee, ethical consideration of societal consequences should

accompany any development of human bioelectronic implant to identify the societal

context and to allow focusing our efforts on the many positive potential applications.

21.9 Conclusions and Perspectives

Microelectronics is on its way into the human body. In the future, it will not only serve us

outside the body as useful technology but will also be integrated into our bodies in the

form of intelligent biosensors and other medical implants. Many functions currently as­

sociated with wearables and semi-implants will then be performed by implants. Various

sensor and actuator systems are currently under development to record and elicit phy­

sical and biochemical parameters in body tissues or organs. Actuator systems can be used

to readjust substance concentrations that have drifted out of the normal range, or to

perform peripheral stimulation of nerve cords for pain relief, etc. Internal and external

solutions can be considered for energy supply. If an internal solution is chosen, i.e., the

use of a battery to be implanted, it represents the size-determining component of the

overall system. A major hurdle for many development projects is the overall system in­

tegration, which requires the constructive interaction of various individual disciplines as

well as a clever sequence of manufacturing processes that take into account system

sterilization. Despite the great benefits that human bioelectronic implants promise for

improving patient care, several ethical and societal issues remain unresolved. This is

especially true of their connection to the Internet, where patients cannot be guaranteed

privacy of their health data under prevailing conditions of use. Also, in the case of im­

plants with functions as brain-computer interfaces, a broad societal debate on the dangers

and consequences of such technology is still lacking.

Acknowledgments

This review is partially based on the results of previous BMBF and BMWi funded projects

for the development of an implantable blood sugar sensor (contract numbers 0313862 and

KF0653901UL8).

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